City Life

As a child growing up in a rural environment, that was the only life I knew and thought it was the best. Adulthood brings into focus maturity. I moved into the city, and came to the realization that I had to adjust to a different way of living, another transition of my life. I was very overwhelmed by hustle and all the excitement of the life that surrounded me. For this reason rural life and city life can be compared and contrasted in regards to cost, standard of living, accessibility and entertainment. Living in a rural environment gives one the sense of a community. Everyone becomes your family sharing concerns for each other, Neighbors can look out for each other and care for your property, less concerns among people for each other exist when living in the city, but as a result of busy schedules and time constraint it is understandable. The most noticeable difference between city life and rural life is cost. Living in the city is very expensive due to a higher demand of goods and services due to demographics in population. The basic necessities of life for example housing (rent or own) food consumption, utility bills, and to maintain that social standard can be overbearing, but there are better educational opportunities and wider range of professional government jobs and higher pay. Living in a rural area, the standard of living is inexpensive, there is a smaller population growth and the demand for goods and services is on a much smaller scale. In contrasting rural and city life, accessibility to services in the city is very easy. Taxicabs are readily available to take you to your destination of choice. Hospitals and emergency services are also readily available. In the rural areas, taxi cab service is not as prompt, often you have to wait for hours for a cab, or the journey to a hospital and access to other medical service will take a much longer time due to poor road conditions. Entertainment forms a part of everyday living and there is so much to do in the city. There are fancy shopping areas; fabulous restaurants for dining, movies, clubs, amusement parks for kids and other places of interest are in close proximity. In rural areas there is not much entertainment, often people stay home most of the time, less live entertainment and the life is much more serene. People in the rural areas grow most of their own crops and have home-cooked meals. Amusement parks are rare in the rural areas and kids in play in their backyard. Whatever we do and say people’s personality will make them decide on a favorable option that satisfies their needs. This is the individual choice; some people will choose to reside in the city because they like the easy access to services and entertainment, while others will reside in the rural areas because it is more affordable and peaceful. As for me I love the city life, I can’t imagine a better life anywhere.

History of Work Force Monitoring and Surveillance Essay

The extent to which organizations monitor their employees reflects a lot about how the organization perceives its employees. Workforce surveillance entails email and internet monitoring, gathering of personal data, biometrics, local tracking as well as covert surveillance. Studies show that surveillance has been a part of organizational routine since time immemorial and that surveillance can take technological and social forms. There are varied reasons as to why companies would want to monitor their employees (Adams, et al. 200). Technological advancement has over time revealed many loopholes through which valued company records such as client data can be accessed illegally. On the other hand, the Federal Trade Commission of the United States established the Safeguard Rules that seek to protect client information against any physical and technical threats so to retain confidentiality, integrity and privacy of such data. Most companies thus install surveillance systems to help them comply with the federal law since it is hard to trust every employee. Workforce surveillance also helps in protecting the organization against legal liabilities. Monitoring facilitates for the individual protection of employees by eliminating or reducing any occurrence of harassment in the work force. Electronic surveillance has for instance enabled organizations to protect their assets, reduce misuse of company resources an in avoiding any legal liabilities. According to a 2001 work place surveillance and monitoring report by the American Management Association, 82% of organization use electronic surveillance and that close to 14 million employees in U. S are under surveillance (American Management Association, 2001). Some legal procedures have been put forward to justify surveillance. The Defense Counsel Journal argues for surveillance by outlining employer rights for monitoring such as: work quality; use of the employer’s equipments; fraud and theft concerns; and the fact that the employee is within the company vicinity (Kirstie, 2010). Surveillance could have consequences on employees and some of the consequences could be detrimental to the organization. Surveillance can affect the work culture, the well being of employees, productivity, motivation and creativity. However, reasonableness is paramount in the whole process of workforce surveillance. The question of respect for employee rights to privacy disqualifies surveillance to some extent such that the whole process seems to be unethical. Legal advisors note that it is extremely important that employees get to know that the surveillance is part of the company routine and that employee consent matter a lot. Reasonable monitoring and surveillance protects important company information, enhances compliance with federal law, protects employee rights, and improves productivity and the work environment. However, it is essential that organizations balance between their monitoring needs and employee privacy.

How Can Alternative Sources of Energy Be Harnessed

How can alternative sources of energy be harnessed effectively? Written by Jill (Huimei ZHOU) Nowadays, there are more and more alternative sources of energy for people to use. But in order to harness these alternative sources of energy effectively, different countries take different actions based on their own natural resources. This essay will show that how to make full use of energy from different countries' viewpoints. Undenied, many years ago, a lot of countries just use the fossil fuels to supply the energy that the whole city needs, but now the sources of energy are more than before, such as solar energy and biomass.So in this case, many countries try them best to harness the renewable energy to reduce the dependence on the traditional energy. Over the last five years, many European countries have increased their reliance on wind farms and hydroelectric dams because of more expensive fossil fuels. For example, in Sweden, the city Kristiantad is looking into building satellite b iogas plants for outlying areas and expanding its network of underground biogas pipes to allow the construction of more filling stations. [1]Besides the European countries, the United States also makes some measures to control the renewable energy more effectively. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the United Sates need to spend about 8000 US farms on installing biomass plants. [2] In order to cut down costs, a number of states and companies are considering new investments or programs. They hope to build plants in Calnifornia to turn organic waste from farms and gas from water treatment plants into biogas. [3] Because of less natural energy and more expensive fees, this way can help the whole state to meet requirements.Above on these countries' methods, we can clearly see that different countries have different environments and situations. So if a country want to harness alternative sources of energy, they should make more reasonable policies depending on their real conditions, which will be more useful. Reference: [1]Using waste, Swedish city cuts its fossil fuel use[1], Source Book, Paragraph 3. [2]Using waste, Swedish city cuts its fossil fuel use[1], Source Book, Paragraph 4. [3]Using waste, Swedish city cuts its fossil fuel use[1], Source Book, Paragraph 4.

Read the article in its entirety,then answer those qestions Assignment

Read the article in its entirety,then answer those qestions - Assignment Example tionships of good relationship employees have with their supervisors and if organizational culture is conducive, open and there is fairness (Hastings and Payne 311). However, while expressing dissent some individuals state that email should never be used as a means to express dissent while some say that email is an appropriate way if the information contains facts and figures and contains no emotional tirade (Hastings and Payne 318). These statements in the article are well quoted as they can be related to an incident that occurred in the previous workplace. A coworker responding to a supervisor used her venting out through email. As email is a medium where one cannot retrieve back the information and can be well recorded it had a negative impact on her work profile. In a similar incident, when another worker used telephone as a means of dissent he was still able to handle the controversy as he apologized and there was no record of the incident. Hasting and Payne concludes by saying that email can be used as a constructive means of inviting dissent and discussions where emotions are kept aside and there is articulation of dissents focused on improving the organization (Hastings and Payne 327). If there is a chance to work in Human Resource Department, this aspect can be applied in the professional life as well because employee engagement and feedback can help organizations reduce conflicts and increase job satisfaction amongst employees. Communication is very important to carry on the business effectively. Business Communication is very important as it the need of every organization to communicate with others to expand the course of their business. National Culture influences business communication as distinguishes the people of culture from other (Ulijn, OHair and Weggeman 300). The article explains the way how people change their views and ways of communication to deal with people belonging to different cultures. It is well known that English is an

The Rape of the Lock Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Rape of the Lock - Essay Example It answer the â€Å"what is it trying to say† instead of the â€Å"what does it literally say?† questions. In The Rape of the Lock we see many lines of pros. Every line has its reason and purpose and can be explicated and analyzed for a better understanding of the text. In The Rape of the Lock, part 1 line 11, we see that a question is asked. It is prefaced by a Lord being refused by a young lady, Belinda. It reads: And dwells such Rage in softest Bosoms then? To explicate this poem one must first look at the line word for word. When you explicate something, you basically spell out what it is saying. You do not use imagery or the senses. You flat out quote it literally. â€Å"And dwells such Rage in softest Bosoms then?† This line clearly means that rage takes up residence in Belinda’s chest. The Rape of the Lock, part 1 line 11 is beautifully prefaced with an unfolding story. This story is written in pros and has a rhyming scheme that is most commonly kno wn as a couplet in iambic pentameter. Using all the senses one has in their body, one tries to analyze this line of poetry. It may seem simple, because of the length, but unless you delve deep into the time period, the mind of the poet and the reason and background, it will be hard to understand each line, much less the entire poem. Analysis does not take the line in the literal form.

Discuss Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Discuss - Essay Example Daguerre believed that photography was an art that needed to embrace as it showed life and nature as it really was. In his early years, Morse like Louis was interested in understanding the workings of the nature and whether a naturalistic image could be captured on paper. He was able to successfully produce negative images, but did not understand that negative films could be used in the making positive photographic prints. Morse improved the Daguerreotype by attaching a mirror in the camera lens, and this rectified the error. Morse like Louis believed that photography â€Å"was a teaching tool that could visually educate the public† (Morse 221). Charles Baudelaire on the other hand, disagreed with Louis view that photography was an art he was in fact appalled by the definition if fine art as an accurate representation of some external reality. He considered men fools to believe photographs as â€Å"mirrors of physical facts† (Baudelaire, 83). He believed that photography was meant for record keeping and should not defined as art because it just represented what existed in

Communication Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Communication Security - Essay Example Frequently, one would desire to make use of various cryptographic equipment with estimated, noisy, and non-uniformly disseminated keys, rather than the exact, sternly random strings that are typically needed. Similarly â€Å"fuzzy† secret could be assessed on somewhat concealed biometric characteristics a retinal scan rather than a thumbprint. For instance, it could be a long password incorrectly dedicated to memory, or one’s impulsive reactions to a list of personal questions. If at all possible, someone would be looking for a wide variety of techniques to alter some of the above into cryptographically powerful keys practical for a variety of purposes. Hence, a number of structures geared toward precise applications have surfaced in the previous few years.The application of fuzzy cryptography can offer an excellent support for potential enhancement of network communication error correction and security. It is an admitted fact that the application of next-generation sec urity mechanisms has offered much better support and network security which have improved the security of a communication network. With the evolution of penetration through mobile devices in current years, safety and privacy threats, as well as security necessities correspondingly, have multiplied. In fact, it has augmented a wide variety of threats, though, is indistinct to wireless networks and mobile users as security methods are supposed as a hassle for the reason that they are not inconspicuous as well as might divert from high-level jobs. (Boyen; Dodis, Reyzin and Smith; Al-saggaf and Acharya). The basic purpose of this research is to assess the application of fuzzy cryptography for achieving feasible network security and offering better security means that are less unobtrusive or even obtrusive? Proposed Solution For the application of better security through fuzzy cryptography, the proposed idea is to make use of context (sensor generated, state reliant content for example ambient audio, location or ambient light) as an embedded method to implement a fundamental level of privacy and security. In fact, this context can be employed as frequent secret codes amongst devices in the similar

Thw Right To Elect Trial By Jury in Hong King Essay

Thw Right To Elect Trial By Jury in Hong King - Essay Example Hong Kong retained the right of jury trial in its Basic Law (Hong Kong Basic Law, 1997, Article 86). However, a recent decision by the Hong Kong Court of Appeal and the Final Court of Appeal in Chiang Lily v Secretary for Justice (2009 and 2010 respectively) confirm that the right to a jury trial in Hong Kong is not an absolute right. This paper analyzes the decision of Chiang Lily, specifically the determination that a right to jury trial is not an absolute right. It is argued that a right to jury trial is a fundamental right, but it is only necessary to meet the aims of justice if it can effectively serve its intended purpose. The intended purpose of a jury trial was to sustain and support the notion of a fair and public trial by one’s peers (Lai, 2010). The main question is therefore whether or not limitations on the right to a trial by jury subvert the concept of a fair and public trial. ... At the time the King sat in judgment of the courts and thus the jury system was introduced to safeguard against the risk of complete â€Å"despotism† (Spooner, 2006, p. 14). Therefore, the introduction of trial by jury was at once intended to ensure fairness and transparency of the justice system. It is therefore hardly surprising that the jury trial has been described as an â€Å"ancient right† and a â€Å"birthright† (Kingswell v R, 1985, Para. 49). Initially pressured by judges to bring a certain verdict, jurors enjoyed full and unrestrained discretion by the 16th century. Jurors was merely bound to follow their own conscience and their own understanding of the law irrespective of the judiciary’s opinion on the law or fact (Ostrowski, 2001). Thus by the 16th century, the jury system was firmly established as a bastion between corrupt officials, unfair laws and judicial pressure to interpret the facts of the case a specific way. This is the legacy that i nforms the current legal system and has done so since its inception. The Merits of Trial by Jury The merits of a jury trial and thus the rationale for preserving the trial by jury is captured in the words of Madam Justice L’Hereux-Dube of Canada’s Supreme Court. Madam Justice L’Heureux-Dube stated that: The jury, through its collective decision making, is an excellent fact finder; due to its representative character, it acts as the conscience of the community; the jury can act as the final bulwark against oppressive laws or their enforcement; it provides a means whereby the public increases its knowledge of the criminal justice system and it increases, through the involvement of the public, societal trust in the system as a whole (R v Sherratt, 1991, p. 523).

Relations between the USA and North Korea Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Relations between the USA and North Korea - Essay Example Relations between the USA and North Korea It is reminiscent of the famous â€Å"ping-pong† diplomacy between the two countries of America and China, in the time of former Pres. Richard Nixon and of Mao Tse-tung of China, which utilized sports as a way to warm up their relations before formal diplomatic relations were established. Besides, the new third-generation leader of North Korea, Kim Jung-un of the Kim dynasty, is a very big or avid fan of basketball, and in particular, that of the Chicago Bulls team franchise of which Rodman was once a member of the triumvirate, together with Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen, who won their first three of a total six NBA championships together. News of this sort is certainly big news and makes for good copy that can help increase readership or circulation, as it is quite odd for a sports star to become an informal ambassador of goodwill although it is not unheard of. Famous sports stars in tennis or golf had also served as ambassadors in the past, but Rodman in a country like N orth Korea, which is sometimes called as the Hermit Kingdom due to its international isolation, strict censorship, harsh laws, and brutal, secretive, and one-man rule dictatorship, provides an excellent and rare diplomatic opening for a rapprochement, the tantalizing possibility of re-establishing cordial relations again, as these two countries have a strained relationship from a recently announced nuclear test. (Zinser, 2013, p. 1). The author's main point is that sports is one good way to promote world peace, if all the diplomatic overtures fail at one time or another. Basketball is a global sport although it has not yet attained the same worldwide popularity as soccer or football, but one thing to say about this sport of basketball is it is something distinctly American. Although majority of North Koreans are taught or brainwashed since birth to hate anything remotely American, it does not seem to apply to American basketball. So, using basketball as an opening to exploit a weakn ess in North Korea's supreme leader is like using back channels in diplomacy, to reduce tensions. The intended audience are the basketball fans worldwide, and Rodman fits the job of an ambassador of goodwill because of his weird antics on and off the court; his presence in the team has attracted an unusual degree of attention from international media as well. Moreover, another audience is probably the American citizenry, who will be given a rare glimpse inside the Hermit Kingdom once filming of the documentary is finished at the end of their trip. Diplomats all over the world will be fascinated how this seemingly minor trip will turn out in the end, how a politics of sports and a politics of diplomacy are mixed for good results (Levermore & Budd, 2004, p. 6). The main point of the author is that diplomacy can take many forms, even the bizarre or the weird, as long as it achieves the aims of foreign policy. In this particular instance, basketball serves as the vehicle by which the tw o countries attained some form of contact, although it is in a way done indirectly. Hopefully, this initial contacts will lead to further warming of their relations and help avert a possible war due to North Korea's belligerence and hard-line stance. As they say quite often, diplomacy is the art of ambiguity, saying a lot of

Competency based HR Activities&8207 in Oman Private sector Dissertation

Competency based HR Activities† in Oman Private sector - Dissertation Example The vision as outlined in its HRD strategy (Vision 2020) is: â€Å"To develop human resources and the capabilities of the Omani people to generate and manage technological changes efficiently, in addition to facing the continuously changing local and international conditions, in a way that ensures maintaining the Omani traditions and customs.† The need to diversify in order to reduce its reliance on oil is of major importance and the expectation is that the private sector will be most able to help the country to realise that vision. According to Potter (1989, p.26) effective localisation (Omanisation) occurs when a local (Omani) filling a job is sufficiently competent to fulfil organisational needs. The strategies by which the Government of Oman plans to achieve its long-term â€Å"Vision 2020† plan are: sustainable development within a stable macroeconomic framework; human resources development; diversification of the economy; and development of the private sector (UNE SCO Report n.d.). ... Challenges The dependence on expatriate labour has serious consequences politically, economically and socially (Rees et al 2007). Oman along with other Middle Eastern countries has been highly dependent on expatriate workers for advanced technical and professional expertise and manual labour (Aycan et al 2007, p. 13). Human capital is recognised as the means to social progress and economic development, and therefore the development of Omanis is seen as the key to the realisation of Oman’s vision. This is especially important with the emphasis that has been has placed on Omanisation. According to Ghailani and Khan (2004) the private sector is viewed as one of the main vehicles for growth and development through which greater employment generation is likely to occur. In the long run Omanis rather than expatriates are expected to promote efficiency and effectiveness in the private sector (Al-Hamadi et al 2007). In this regard the Government’s social policy and specifically that connected with the development of the skills of Omanis has taken priority as it strives to enhance the capacity of its people to participate effectively in the country’s development (UNESCO Report n.d.). Another challenge is the increasing unemployment of Omanis, especially those who have only completed secondary education. This situation exists amidst the high percentage of expatriates employed in the private sector. Omanis remain reluctant to take up certain positions in the private sector. Al-Hamadi et al (2007, p.104) states that data suggests that Omanis have a preference for certain sectors while they reject others such as construction and other manual jobs. Therefore, there are doubts that targets for certain industries in the private sector will ever be met without some

William Morris Research Paper Essay Example for Free

William Morris Research Paper Essay William Morris was a poet, artist, manufacturer, and socialist during the mid to late 19th century. He was most active as a wallpaper and textile designer and later in his life a graphic designer. Morris was born March of 1834 in Walthamstow, which was near to London. He lived with his wealthy family near London and learned to read at a young age. He later attended Oxford where he met is friend, Edward Burne-Jones, who would later become one of the greatest Pre-Raphaelite artists. Morris started at Oxford thinking of becoming a clergyman, but soon joined an aesthetic circle. Morris had a great interest in medieval art and architecture, because it was art that was made by people and for people with great skill and craft instead of art that was made by mass production. After graduating and inheriting his father’s money, Morris started working as an architect. After a few years, Edward Burne-Jones influenced him to become an artist instead. Morris started as a poet and painter, but later in his life became more interested in politics, tapestries, graphic design, and textile designs. â€Å"The Arts and Crafts movement evolved as a revolt against the new age of mechanization, a Romantic effort on part of Morris and others to implement the philosophy of the influential critic John Ruskin, who stated that true art should be both beautiful and useful and should base its forms on those found in nature.† Morris and others fought to return to the simplicity, beauty, and craftsmanship that were being destroyed by the process of mass production. He also became more active as a socialist, and had many writings and leadership roles involving this. La Belle Iseult was the only known and finished easel painting made by Morris. It was made in 1858 and shows his model, Jane Burden, who became his wife in 1859. Jane is modeling as Iseult standing in front of an unmade bed in a medieval room. The painting shows many rich colors, and there is great emphasis on the patterns throughout the painting. These patterns can be seen in many of Morris’s work in his tapestries. Throughout the painting Morris uses textures and patterns to make the piece feel more realistic. In the foreground he places Iseult who is standing and looking towards the left. She is not addressing the viewer and looks as though she has recently arisen from bed. In the middle ground he places an unmade bed with a dog snuggled  in. In the background there is a woman musician playing for Iseult. Morris paints Iseult with illuminating skin and keeps her the main focus with her light white and pink patterned dress. There are many curtains draping from the ceiling echoing the colors in her dress. The room is full of things placing it in medieval times. This painting of Iseult is showing her mourning over her lover, Tristram, who was exiled from the court of King Mark. She was locked in the tower after attempting to kill herself. Now she has been sick almost to the point of death mourning for her lover, and this is also shown in the mood of the painting. â€Å"She stands wistfully in her small chamber, her feelings for Tristram reinforced by the springs of rosemary, symbolizing remembrance, in her crown, and the word ‘DOLOURS’ (grief) written down the side of her mirror.† The greyhound also proves the subject to be Iseult, because it is said Tristram gave her the dog and it is now used as her identifying emblem. There has been confusion on the name of this piece, and it has also been called Queen Guenevere. This is most likely because Morris wrote a poem called The Defence of Guenevere in the same year the painting was made, which is addressing the same character in the painting. Morris struggled for months on this picture and spent more time on embroidery and woodcarving. Many of the furnishings in the picture, such as the Turkish rug, the Persian embroidered cover, and the white work hangings are inspired by his actual collection. Strawberry Thief is a printed cotton furnishing textile that was made to be used as curtains or draperies for a wall. It could have also been used as loose covers on furniture. This pattern is based on the thrushes that Morris would often see stealing his strawberries beside his home in the kitchen garden. This is one of his best known designs and is very colorful with the deep indigo blue he used. â€Å"The pattern was printed by the indigo discharge method, an ancient technique used for many centuries mostly in the East.† Morris liked the depth of the color and clarity in the detail. In May 1883 Morris wrote to his daughter, I was a great deal at Merton last week anxiously superintending the first printing of the Strawberry thief, which I think we shall manage this time. Morris was very pleased with his design and even got it patented. It was the first pattern using this old technique where red and yellow were added to the basic blue and white ground. The entire process was painstakingly long to make and it used very expensive cotton.  Even though it was sold at a high price, the textile was one of the most commercially successful patterns for Morris and one of the client’s favorites. Morris was primarily active as a wallpaper and textile designer. The flower motif was a favorite in his work. He would often make his designs simple and stylized and inspired by traditional folk art. Morris’s emphasis on the importance of skill and craft and making art for the people contradicted his expensive textiles that only the wealthy could afford. Morris worked to restore the art of fine fabric printing and often experimented and researched different methods in making fabrics. Strawberry Thief is a colorful design where Morris used an indigo disch arge technique to create it. â€Å"Morris found that in order to produce a true indigo blue the fabric could not be block printed because the indigo dye oxidizes, changing the color as the fabric dries. Morris reused an early technique of vat-dyeing the entire yardage in indigo. Then, by using either a resist process or through bleach printing, areas of the fabric could be opened (the indigo color removed) and redyed the desired color.† Morris would also study old dye recipes, and would wash his fabric in the nearby river and dry it on the grass to allow the sun to bleach away the residual color. He would use organic materials for his primary colors, and would blend dyes and change the strength of dye solution to get the secondary colors. Morris’s early works and patterns were simpler and were made from a contemporary style with more obvious repetition. His later patterns and designs became more complex with more depth. â€Å"Morris believed that a pattern should not be at once entirely self-revea ling and should hold some mystery for the viewer, being sufficiently complex to maintain his attention.† Daisy Wallpaper was made in 1862 and was hand-printed for the firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner Co. It is a design showing a variety of plants. The colors of plants included are white, red and yellow flowers placed on a pale background with green flecks which represent grass. â€Å"The flat simple frontal motif was adapted from a tapestry shown in an illuminated manuscript at the British Museum; Block-printed in distemper colours, on paper; The second paper William Morris designed, but the first to be issued (1864).† This wallpaper is another one of Morris’s flower motifs and is simple and stylized. This was also inspired by traditional folk art. This wallpaper was hand printed which made it very expensive. This was the first pattern that Morris  issued, which took place in the year of 1864. It is a simple design of meadow flowers, and these forms are very similar to those seen in the late medieval tapestries. This wallpaper has a medieval character that connects Mo rris’s early work with the Pre-Raphaelite painters. Morris also had an interest in making nature into ornament which also helped influence this design. Morris said â€Å"any decoration is futile when it does not remind you of something beyond itself.† William often observed the plants in his garden and studied them which then they would often end up in many of his works. Morris did not intend for his designs and flowers to be taken as literal transcriptions of natural forms, but instead they were supposed to be seen as stylized re-creations. Morris designed over 50 wallpapers, and advised that the choice of wallpaper for the home must take into account the function of the room. Morris still preferred woven textile hangings over wallpaper, and thought of wallpaper as a makeshift decoration. â€Å"Though naturalistic, they were not of the over-blown chintzy floral style generally described as French, then popular with aristocratic and wealthy customers. On the other hand, though many were flat and to a degree stylized, often drawing on medieval sources for their motifs and character, they did not have the severity and the mor al overtones of reformed design.† During the late 1890s, Morris’s wallpapers could be commonly seen in many artistic middle-class homes. He had great success in â€Å"creating structured patterns from natural forms, with a sense of organic growth controlled by a subtle geometry, was his most important design legacy.† He also influenced the skill of making flat and complex patterns, patterns that were stylized organic forms and motifs of nature. He even changed the way the middle-class decorated their homes. Throughout Morris’s career as a designer he worked to bring people away from the commercialization of the Industrial Revolution and he pushed people to come back and reawaken to the romantic ideas of handcraft medieval design. He would often find his inspiration in nature and today many of his designs can be found on tapestries, textiles, wallpaper, stained glass, carpets, and more. He was one of the more influential voices in Victorian art and architecture of the time. Although Morris did so many different kinds of art, there are a few stylistic elements and ideas that he incorporated throughout his work. Morris really emphasized quality in his work, not only in the quality of the  actual design itself, but also in the quality of life. He believed that the two were entwined in a way and he would encourage people around him to make things for themselves. He also used a historic style which played into all of his work. Bibliography Arnason, H. H. History of Modern Art: Painting Sculpture Architecture Photography. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003. Print Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate. Nineteenth-Century European Art. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2012. Print. Cody, David. William Morris: A Brief Biography. The Victorian Web. N.p., 17 Oct. 2012. Web. Nov. 2012. http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/morris/wmbio.html. Fowle, Frances. La Belle Iseult. TATE. N.p., Dec. 2000. Web. Nov. 2012. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/morris-la-belle-iseult-n04999/text-summary. Mackail, John WIlliam. â€Å"William Morris.† The Dictionary of National Biography. Supp. vol. 3. London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1901. 197†203. Print. Marsh, Jan. William Morriss Painting and Drawing. JSTOR. The Burlington Magazine Publications Ltd., 1986. Web. Nov. 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/882655. Oman, Charles C., and Hamilton, Jean. â€Å"Wallpapers: a history and illustrated catalogue of the collection of the Victoria and Alb ert Museum.† London: Sotheby Publications, in association with the Victoria and Albert Museum, 1982. Strawberry Thief. Search the Collections. V A Collections, n.d. Web. 02 Dec. 2012. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O78889/strawberry-thief-furnishing-fabric-morris-william/. Whipple, David. Textile Designs and Books by William Morris. JSTOR. Cleveland Museum of Art, 1978. Web. Nov. 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25159593. William Morris Wallpaper Design. Victoria and Albert Museum. Victoria and Albert Museum, 2012. Web. Nov. 2012. http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/w/william-morris-and-wallpaper- design/. Images of the Works: Title: La Belle Iseult Date: 1858 Medium: Oil Paint on Canvas Size: Support: 718 x 502 mm, Frame: 960 x755 x 61 mm Source: Tate Britain (http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/morris-la-belle-iseult-n04999) Title: Strawberry Thief Date: 1883 Medium: Furnishing Fabric/Textile Size: 60.5 x 95.2 cm Source: Victoria and Albert Museum (http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O78889/strawberry-thief-furnishing-fabric-morris-william/) Title: Daisy Wallpaper Date: 1864 Medium: block-printed in distemper colors, on paper Size: Height: 687 mm, Width: 544 mm Source: Victoria Albert Museum (http://thetextileblog.blogspot.com/2010/09/william-morris-and-daisy-wallpaper.html) [ 1 ]. Mackail, John WIlliam. â€Å"William Morris.† The Dictionary of National Biography. Supp. vol. 3. London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1901. 197†203. [ 2 ]. Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate. Nineteenth-Century European Art. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2012. [ 3 ]. Cody, David. William Morris: A Brief Biography. The Victorian Web. N.p., 17 Oct. 2012. Web. Nov. 2012. . [ 4 ]. Arnason, H. H. History of Modern Art: Painting Sculpture Architecture Photography. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003. [ 5 ]. Marsh, Jan. William Morriss Painting and Drawing. JSTOR. The Burlington Magazine Publications Ltd., 1986. Web. Nov. 2012. . [ 6 ]. Fowle, Frances. La Belle Iseult. TATE. N.p., Dec. 2000. Web. Nov. 2012. . [ 7 ]. Fowle, Fances. â€Å"La Belle Iseult.† [ 8 ]. Marsh, Jan. â€Å"William Morris’s Painting and Drawing.† [ 9 ]. Fowle, Fances. â€Å"La Belle Iseult.† [ 10 ]. Strawberry Thief. Search the Collections. V A Collections, n.d. Web. 02 Dec. 2012. [ 11 ]. Strawberry Thief. Search the Collections. V A Collections. [ 12 ]. Strawberry Thief. Search the Collections. V A Collections. [ 13 ]. Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate. Nineteenth-Century European

Information Systems and Organization Essay Example for Free

Information Systems and Organization Essay This paper, and the special issue, address relationships between information systems and changes in the organization of modern enterprise, both within and across firms. The emerging organizational paradigm involves complementary changes in multiple dimensions. The revolution in information systems merits special attention as both cause and effect of the organizational transformation. This can be illustrated by considering two key variables: the location of information and the location of decision rights in organizations. Depending on the costs of information transmission and processing, either the MIS solution of transferring information, or the organizational redesign solution of moving decision rights, can be an effective approach toward achieving the necessary collocation of information and decision rights. When information systems change radically, one cannot expect the optimal organizational structure to be unaffected. Considering the interplay among information, incentives and decision rights in a unified fashion leads to new insights and a better organizational planning. The papers in the special issue address different facets of this interaction. Despite significant progress, our understanding of the economic role of information systems in organizations remains in its infancy. We conclude that successful design of modern enterprise will require further narrowing  of the historic gap between research in information systems and research in economics. The organization of work is in the midst of transformation. In many industries, mass production by large, vertically-integrated, hierarchically-organized firms is giving way to more flexible forms of both internal organization and industrial structure. Work is increasingly accomplished through networks of smaller, more focused enterprises. The resulting structure of loosely coupled sub-organizations blurs the boundaries of both firms and industries. A canonical case in point is the computer industry. In the past, the industry was dominated by large, vertically-integrated firms such as IBM and Digital Equipment which created products and services throughout the value chain from the microprocessor level all the way up to the provision of solutions. The vertical structure is now being replaced by a series of layers, each of which is, in effect, a separate industry. Value is generated by ever-changing coalitions, where each member of a coalition specializes in its area of core competence and leverages it through the use of tactical or strategic partnerships. Internally, team structures are replacing the traditional hierarchical form, and the Silicon Valley model of internal organization is emerging as a clear winner.3 Internal incentives are increasingly based on performance, and this further blurs the differences between inter- and intra-firm contracts. In sum, modern enterprise is undergoing major restructuring. In this short paper we briefly discuss the newly emerging organizational paradigms and their relationship to the prevailing trends in information technology (IT). We argue that IT is an important driver of this transformation. Finally, we place the studies selected for this special issue of the Journal of Organizational Computing within this context. 1. Emerging Organizational Paradigms: Symptoms and Causes At the turn of the century, Frederick Taylor sought to put the nascent wisdom  for successful business organization on a scientific basis. His work guided a generation of managers towards success in meshing their organizations with the technologies, markets, labor and general environment of the era. By the 1920s, Henry Ford had applied the Taylorist approach with a vengeance and soon dominated the automobile market, driving dozens of competitors under. Ironically, these same principles are almost diametrically opposed to the prevailing wisdom of the 1990s. For example, consider the following guideline from The Science of Management [1] It is necessary in any activity to have a complete knowledge of what is to be done and to prepare instructions the laborer has only to follow instructions. He need not stop to think. The current emphasis on empowerment, learning organizations, and even thriving on chaos stands in sharp contrast to Meyers advice (cf. [2] , [3] ). Similar contrast can be found with many, if not most, of the other principles that lead to success even as late as the 1960s. Consider, for example, the growing calls for downsizing (vs. economies of scale), focus (vs. conglomerates), total quality (vs. cost leadership), project teams (vs. functional departments), supplier partnerships (vs. maximizing bargaining power), networked organization (vs. clear firm boundaries); performance-based pay (vs. fixed pay), and local autonomy (vs. rigid hierarchy). Milgrom and Roberts [4] make the point that the different characteristics of modern manufacturing, an important example of the emerging organizational paradigm, are often highly complementary. This complementarity, coupled with the natural tendency to change organizational attributes one at a time, makes the transition from one paradigm to another particularly difficult. Strong complementarity implies that in order to be successful, change must be implemented simultaneously along a number of related dimensions. Organizations that adopt only one or two key components of the new organizational paradigm may fail simply by virtue of this complementarity. For instance, Jaikumars [5] study of 95 US and Japanese companies found that the majority of US companies had failed to achieve productivity  increases despite switching to flexible manufacturing technology. The reason was that they had preserved dozens of manufacturing practices such as long production runs and high work-in-process inventory levels, which complemented the old technology but kept the new technology from fulfilling its potential. Thus, the transition from the old structure to the new one is overwhelmingly complex. The switch would be easier if we apply design guided by theory instead of piecemeal evolution. There are many possible explanations for the change in the prevailing wisdom regarding organizational design. For instance, it is common to justify calls for radical change with reference to heightened competitive pressures: although firms that applied the old principles were among the most successful competitors of their day, presumably the nature of competition has changed in some way. Others suggest that consumer tastes have changed, making customized items more appealing than they once were. While historians would argue that the taste for mass marketed items was itself something that had to be developed in the early days of mass production, increased wealth or social stratification may make this more difficult today. It can also be argued that some of the new principles were as applicable fifty years ago as they are today, but that they simply had not yet been discovered. Although the enablers of the current organizational transformation are undoubtedly numerous and far from mutually independent, we would like to single one out for special attention: the rise in IT. Brynjolfsson [6, p.6] argues that IT is an appropriate candidate for explaining these changes for three reasons: First, compared to other explanations, the advances in information technology have a particularly reasonable claim to being both novel and exogenous. Many of the fundamental technological breakthroughs that enable todays vast information infrastructure were made less than a generation ago and were driven more by progress in physics and engineering than business demand. Second, the growth in information technology investment is of a large enough magnitude to be economically significant the result has been what is commonly referred to as the information explosion Third, there is a  sound basis for expecting an association between the costs of technologies that manage information and the organization of economic activity. The firm and the market have each been frequently modeled as primarily information processing institutions (see Galbraith [7] and Hayek [8] , respectively). Miller [9] foresaw the key features of the new paradigm as a natural outcome of the information era and the associated economy of choice: The new technologies will allow managers to handle more functions and widen their span of control. Fewer levels of management hierarchy will be required, enabling companies to flatten the pyramid of todays management structure. The new information technologies allow decentralization of decision-making without loss of management awareness; thus employees at all levels can be encouraged to be more creative and intrapreneurial. The key responsibility of the CEO will be leadership; to capture the light or energies of the organization like a lens and focus them on the key strategic objectives. The new organizational paradigm is indeed intertwined with the structure of an organizations information systems. Under the old paradigm, the firm was governed by a relatively rigid functional structure. This separation into distinct and well-defined organizational units economizes on the information and communications requirements across functional units and reduces cost and complexity. There is a tradeoff, however: the old structure is less flexible, less responsive and ultimately results in lower quality. In our view, the growing use of IT and the trend towards networking and client-server computing are both a cause and an effect of the organizational transition. Lowering the costs of horizontal communications, facilitating teamwork, enabling flexible manufacturing and providing information support for time management and quality control are key enablers on the supply side. It is equally clear that the new organizational paradigm demands new information systems: nothing can be more devastating for cross-functional teamwork than a rigid information system that inhibits cross-functional information flows. We can unify these perspectives by noting that the structure of the organizations information system is a key element of  organizational transformation. Changes in IT change the nature of organizations just as changes in organizational structure drive the development of new technologies. 2. Information Systems, Economics and Organizational Structure Jensen and Meckling [10] provide a useful framework for studying the complementarities between information systems, incentive structures and decision rights in organizations. In their framework, the structure of an organization is specified by three key elements: (i) The allocation of decision rights (i.e., who is responsible for what actions/decisions); (ii) the incentive system, which defines how decision makers are to be rewarded (or penalized) for the decisions they make; and (iii) a monitoring and measurement scheme used to evaluate these actions and their outcomes. According to Jensen and Meckling, informational variables are key to the structure of organizations because the quality of decisions is determined by the quality of information available to the decision maker. The co-location of information and decision rights enables the decision maker to make optimal decisions. The implementation of this co-location depends on the nature of the pertinent information. Jensen and Meckling distinguish between specific knowledge which is localized, difficult to represent and transfer, and depends on idiosyncratic circumstances, and general knowledge which can be easily summarized, communicated and shared by decision makers. Now, there are two ways to bring information and decision rights together: (i) The MIS solution: transfer the information required for the decision to the decision maker, using the organizations (possibly non-automated) information systems; or (ii) the organizational redesign solution: redesign the organizational structure so that the decision making authority is where the pertinent information is. By definition, general knowledge which is useful for a decision calls for the MIS solution because it can be transferred at low cost. In contrast, when specific knowledge plays a key role in a decision, the best solution calls for restructuring decision  rights so as to provide the decision authority to the one who possesses or has access to the pertinent information (since the transfer of specific knowledge is too costly).4 Jensen and Meckling thus represent the structure of organizations as an efficient response to the structure of their information costs. But then, a change in information costs must induce a change in organizational structure. In particular, IT has changed the costs of processing and transferring certain types of information (e.g. quantitative data), but has done little for other types (e.g. implicit knowledge or skills). IT changes the structure of organizations by facilitating certain information flows as well as by turning knowledge that used to be specific into general knowledge. By developing a taxonomy of information types and identifying the differential impacts of new technologies on their transferability and importance, we can take a significant step towards applying the simple insight that information and authority should be co-located [11] . Intra-organizational networks and workgroup computing facilities reduce the information costs of teamwork and hence make it a more efficient solution to the organizational design problem. Client-server computing technology lowers cross-functional (as well as geographic) barriers. IT (when applied properly) streamlines the types of information that used to be the raison detre of middle management quantitative control information and turns it into general knowledge that can be readily transmitted to, and processed by, people other than those who originally gathered the data. A reduction in the number of management layers and the thinning out of middle management ranks is the predictable result. Similar considerations apply to enterprises that cross firm boundaries. As a simple example, consider the organization of trading activities [12, 13, 14] . Traditionally, trading took place on the floor of an exchange, which was the locus of numerous pieces of specific knowledge, ranging from the hand signals indicating bids and offers to buy and sell a security to traders facial expressions and the atmosphere on the floor of the exchange. Under that structure, much of the information pertinent to trading is specific and  localized to the floor. Thus, when an investor instructs her broker to sell 1,000 shares of a given stock, the broker transmits the order to the floor of the exchange and only the floor broker attempts to provide best execution. The decision rights (here, for the trading decisions) are naturally delegated to the decision maker who has the pertinent specific knowledge, and since that knowledge resides on the floor of the exchange, the floor broker is best suited to have the decision rights. Technology, and in particular screen-based systems, turns much of the specific knowledge on the floor (i.e., bids and offers) into general knowledge. This shifts decision rights up from the floor to the brokers screens. The inevitable result is the decline of the trading floor and the increased importance of brokers trading rooms. The demise of the trading floor in exchanges that turned to screen-based trading (such as London and Paris) is a natural outcome of the shift in the locus of knowledge. More generally, markets in particular, electronic markets transform specific knowledge into general knowledge [15] . Ironically, even as IT has sped up many links of the information processing chain and vastly increased the amount of information available to any one decision-maker, it has also led to the phenomenon of information overload. This can perhaps best be understood by a generalization of the Jensen and Meckling framework to include finite human information processing capacity. As more information moves from the specific category to the general category, the limiting factor becomes not what information is available but rather a matter of finding the human information processing capacity needed to attend to and process the information. Computers appear to have exacerbated the surfeit of information relative to processing capacity, perhaps because the greatest advances have occurred in the processing and storage of structured data, which is generally a complement, not a substitute, for human information processing. As computer and communications components increase their speed, the human bottleneck in the information processing chain becomes ever more apparent. Information overload, when interpreted in light of this framework, can provide an explanation for the increased autonomy and pay-for-performance  that characterize a number of descriptions of the new managerial work (cf. [6] ). Economizing on information costs means that more decision rights are delegated to line managers who possess the idiosyncratic, specific knowledge necessary to accomplish their tasks. Shifting responsibility from the overburdened top of the hierarchy to line personnel not only reduces the information processing load at the top of the hierarchy, but also cuts down unnecessary communications up and down the hierarchy. This blurs the traditional distinction between conceptualization and execution and broadens the scope of decision rights delegated to lower level managers. By the Jensen-Meckling [10] framework, any such shift in decision authority (and in the associated routing of information) must also be accompanied by a change in the structure of incentives. Disseminating information more broadly is ever easier with IT, allowing line workers to take into account information that goes well beyond the formerly-narrow definitions of their job. Meanwhile, providing the right incentives for the newly empowered work force is an equally crucial element of the current reorganization of work. Agency theory predicts that performance-based pay is necessary when decision rights are decentralized (otherwise, the agents may be induced to act in ways that are inconsistent with overall organizational goals). It therefore follows that incentive-based compensation is appropriate for better-informed workers [16].5 Thus, the confluence of better-informed workers, an empowered workforce and more incentive-based pay is consistent with our thesis that IT is a key driver of the new organizational paradigm. Furthermore, the theory of incomplete contracts suggests that the analysis can be extended to include interorganizational changes such as increased reliance on outsourcing and networks of other firms for key components [17] . Here again the shift can be explained in incentive terms: one ultimate incentive is ownership, so entrepreneurs are likely to be more innovative and aggressive than the same individuals working as division managers. Both within and across organizations, then, changes in information systems are accompanied by changes in incentives and in the organization of work. 3. The Special Issue The papers in this special issue attest to the role of information systems in the structure of modern enterprise and the blurring of the differences between inter- and intra-firm transactions. Starting from the firms level, Barrons paper studies how a firm determines its internal organization and how IT affects this determination. Barron considers a traditional firm, with well-defined boundaries that are endogenously determined by considering flexibility and scope of control. Ching, Holsapple and Whinston broaden the scope of the enterprise to the network organization a construct obtained by tying together a number of firms that cooperate through a well-defined communication mechanism. Specifically, they use a bidding protocol to manage the relationship between suppliers and producers. Beath and Ang examine another form of inter-firm cooperation, the relational contract, in the context of software-development outsourcing. They show how relational contracts embody a relationship that can be characterized as a network consisting of two organizations. Whang studies a more subtle form of networking information sharing between buyers and suppliers. Bakos and Brynjolfsson examine the impact of incentives and information costs on the nature of buyer-supplier relationships. They show that committing to a partnership with a small number of suppliers can be an optimal strategy for a buyer because it will maximize the suppliers incentives for non-contractible investments such as information sharing, innovation or quality. The papers thus present a spectrum ranging from a study of the boundaries of the traditional firm through different forms of networking to explicit buyer-supplier relationships. A common theme is the organization of work so as to reduce overall information costs not only within an organization but across them as well. The surviving enterprise is often (though not always) the one that attempts to reduce information costs while capitalizing on the comparative advantage of the participating organizations. This calls for opportunistic cooperation that benefits the members of the network for as long as they cooperate. IT reduces the costs of such cooperation by  facilitating communication and increasing the flexibility of the participating organizations. Using the Jensen-Meckling terminology, different network participants can make more effective use of their specific knowledge when the costs of transferring and processing general knowledge are reduced. Further, technology enables the development of markets that, by their very nature, transform specific knowledge into general knowledge. Thus, the bidding and communications protocols proposed by Ching, Holsapple and Whinston in their paper Modeling Network Organizations effectively transform the specific knowledge inherent in the production technology of the competing suppliers into general knowledge that encompasses not only prices but also their reputations. From this perspective, IT is key to the development of network organizations. In his paper Impacts of Information Technology on Organizational Size and Shape: Control and Flexibility Effects, Barron builds a stylized quantitative model to study the impact of IT on the structure of organizations. Examining flexibility and scope of control, he identifies sixteen different cases with different patterns of the actual causality between IT and firm structure. Barron shows that simplistic statements regarding the impact of IT are not as straightforward as one might imagine due to the interaction of size, scope and flexibility. His results suggest that the impact of IT is rather complex, and that further specification is necessary prior to making predictions on the impact of IT on organizational size or shape. Hierarchical Elements in Software Contracts by Beath and Ang focuses on the contractual structure of outsourced software development. This is an interesting example of the new organizational paradigm because of the key role of information systems in any organization. Effective software development hinges on cooperation, communication and joint management which are at the heart of the new organizational paradigm. Beath and Ang examine the mechanisms used to govern outsourcing projects as specified in their outsourcing contracts. They suggest that the relational contract, which converts an arms-length transaction into a joint project with governance and resolution procedures that resemble those used by firms internally, is an  effective way to accomplish this. Thus, while Ching, Holsapple and Whinston view bidding and explicit reputation formation as the alphabet of the network organization, Beath and Ang view actual contract clauses as the key linguistic constructs. The paper shows how the structure of the contract is driven by the attributes of the project as well as those of the parties to the transaction. In Analysis of Economic Incentives for Inter-Organizational Information Sharing, Whang addresses the question of information sharing in non-cooperative buyer-supplier settings. Whang studies this question for two different models. He first shows that due to adverse incentives, suppliers will not be willing to share information regarding their costs. The situation is different when the information to be conveyed is regarding the expected delay or lead time. Whang shows that suppliers are better off disclosing lead-time information to buyers (when the demand curve for their product is convex). This result is consistent with our general thesis, whereas the former one introduces a note of caution: adverse incentives pose limits to the scope of information sharing among network organizations. In From Vendors to Partners: Information Technology and Incomplete Contracts in Buyer-Supplier Relationships, Bakos and Brynjolfsson start with the assumption that, in many cases, complete information exchange between two firms will be infeasible, so any contract between them will be incomplete in the sense that some contingencies will remain unspecified. They then explore how the interplay of IT and organizational structure can affect the role of non-contractible investments, such as innovation, quality and the exchange of information. For example, Bakos and Brynjolfsson show that when fewer suppliers are employed, they collectively capture a larger share of the benefits of the relationship, and this will increase their incentives to make non-contractible investments. As a result, even when search costs are very low, it may be desirable for the buyer to limit the number of employed suppliers, leading to a partnership-type of relationship, rather than aggressively bargaining for all the benefits by threatening to switch among numerous alternative suppliers. Like Whang, they show that the incentive effects of the applications of IT must be explicitly considered in any model  of their effect on inter-organizational cooperation. 4. Conclusion In this paper, we have stressed the joint determination of the location of information and decision rights. The default mechanism used to achieve this co-location depends on ones point of reference. Information Systems researchers are likely to take the locus of decision authority for granted. They will typically focus their attention on devising schemes that will efficiently organize, retrieve, sort, filter, transmit and display information for designated decision makers. In contrast, the economist is likely to focus on the allocation of decision rights and the concomitant effect on incentives.6 As we discussed in Section 2, transferring information and transferring decision authority are two sides of the same question. Because economics and information systems research evolved to address different problems, this complementarity long went unnoticed. Each of the papers in the special issue addresses a different aspect of the interplay among information, incentives and the structure of economic enterprise. In every case, insights resulted when both information and incentives were explicitly considered. Each paper contributes an additional piece to an emerging mosaic that describes not only the features of the new organization, but also gives some insight into their theoretical underpinnings. The papers in this special issue also highlight the incomplete state of knowledge in the subject area and the dearth of empirical guidance to the formulation and testing of theoretical research. We started this paper with a discussion of the computer industry as the canonical example of the new paradigm as exercised in Silicon Valley, and continued by arguing that its products actually fuel the shift to this paradigm. It is only appropriate to close the loop by examining the dictum of that paradigm as it applies to the inner workings of firms in the computer industry. A major effort along these lines in being undertaken by one of the authors and his colleagues in Stanford Universitys Computer Industry Project. Understanding these changes so that they can be harnessed for productive ends remains a central challenge for the next decade of research. The rapid progress in designing computers and communications systems contrasts starkly with the uncertainty clouding organizational design. Yet, new ways of organizing will be necessary before the potential of IT can be realized. Furthermore, because the new organizational paradigms involve numerous complementarities, the trial-and-error methods which were important in the rise of the organizational forms of the past century, such as large hierarchies and mass markets, may be unsuited for making the next transition. Understanding and implementing one aspect of a new organizational structure without regard to its interaction with other aspects can leave the make the organization worse off than if no modifications at all were made. Design, rather than evolution, is called for when significant changes must be made along multiple dimensions simultaneously. Successful organizational design, in turn, requires that we understand the flow of information among humans and their agents every bit as well as we understand the flow of electrons in chips and wires. Perhaps, then, the revolution in information processing capabilities not only calls for a change in business organization, but also a re-evaluation of the historic separation between Information Systems and Economics. REFERENCES [1] Meyers, G. The Science of Management. In C. B. Thompson (Eds.), Scientific Management Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1914. [2] Kanter, R. M. The New Managerial Work. Harvard Business Review, Nov-Dec, 1989, pp. 85-92. [3] Peters, T. Thriving on Chaos, Handbook for a Management Revolution. New York: Knopf, 1988. [4] Milgrom, P. and Roberts, J. The Economics of Modern Manufacturing: Technology, Strategy, and Organization. American Economic Review, Vol. 80, No. 3, 1990. [5] Jaikumar, R. Post-Industrial Manufacturing. Harvard Business Review, November-December, 1986, pp. 69-76. [6] Brynjolfsson, E. Information Technology and the New Managerial Work. Working Paper # 3563-93. MIT, 1990. [7] Galbraith, J. Organizational Design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1977. [8] Hayek, F. A. The Use of Knowledge in Society. American Economic Review, Vol. 35, No. 4, 1945. [9] Miller, W. F. The Economy of Choice. In Strategy, Technology and American Industry HBS Press, 1987. [10] Jensen, M. and Meckling, W. Knowledge, Control and Organizational Structure Parts I and II. In Lars, Werin and Hijkander (Eds.), Contract Economics (pp.251-274). Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1992. [11] Mendelson, H. On Centralization and Decentralization. Stanford, forthcoming, 1993. [12] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. An Integrated Computerized Trading System. In Market Making and the Changing Structure of the Securities Industry (pp. 217-235). Lexington Heath, 1985. [13] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. (1989). The Effects of Computer-Based Trading on Volatility and Liquidity. In H. C. Lucas Jr. and R. A. Schwartz (Eds.), The Challenge of Information Technology for the Securities Markets. (pp. 59-85). Dow Jones-Irwin. [14] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. Liquidity, Volatility and Exchange Automation. Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance, Vol. 3, Fall, 1988, pp. 369-395. [15] Malone, T. W., Yates, J. and Benjamin, R. I. Electronic Markets and Electronic Hierarchies. Communications of the ACM, Vol. 30, No. 6, 1987, pp. 484-497. [16] Baker, G. P. Incentive Contracts and Performance Measurement. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 100, No. 3, June, 1992. [17] Brynjolfsson, E. An Incomplete Contracts Theory of Information, Technology, and Organization. Management Science, forthcoming, 1993.

There Are Major Approaches Of Leadership Theory Business Essay

There Are Major Approaches Of Leadership Theory Business Essay Virgin was founded in 1970 as a mail-order record business and developed as a private company in music publishing and retaining. Virgin had grown fast, becoming profitable and entering and claiming a significant share of new markets without the traditional trappings of the typical multinational. In 2001 Branson described the virgin group as branded ventures to expand them at the expense of profits. The use of partners provided flexibility and limited risk. Branson and his business development team reviewed about 50 business proposals a week with about four new projects under discussion at any one time. Company profile:- Sir Richard Branson, holding company Virgin Group gets around. The groups travel-related operations, led by 51%-owned Virgin Atlantic Airways, are among its largest cash generators. The airline flies to about 35 destinations around the world with a fleet of almost 40 aircraft. Virgin Atlantic is complemented by its Australian low-fare cousin, Virgin Blue, which operates a fleet of some 80 aircraft. Virgin Group also runs Virgin Rail and sells tour packages. Besides travel and leisure, the groups major operating areas include financial services and telecom (Virgin Media). Leadership:- Leadership culture is defined by the collective action of formal and informal leaders acting together in the help of organizational goals that ultimately marks the difference. When we speak about the leadership it is the both leaders themselves and the relationship among them, the skills and behavior of the leaders are needed to implement the business strategy and create the desired culture. The collective leadership capabilities of the leaders acting together in the groups and across the boundaries to implement strategies. A good leadership strategy takes all of these factors into account. (William and Michael, 2011.) Generating the effort and commitment to work towards objectives is central to managing any human activity. People use the term effective leader to denote someone who brings innovation, moves an activity out of trouble into success, makes a worthwhile difference. They see opportunities to do new things, take initiatives, and inspire people. The most effective leaders will be people who use their energies to accomplish desired results. Leadership will focus on action and implementation. Katz and Kahn (1948). There is general three areas of skill are necessary for the process of management: technical, human and conceptual Technical skill:-ability to use knowledge, methods, techniques, and equipment necessary for the performance of specific tasks, acquired from experience, education and training. Human skills:-ability and judgment in working with and through people. This includes an understanding of motivation and application of effective leadership. Conceptual skills:-ability to understand the complexities of the overall organization and where ones own operation fits into the organization. This knowledge permits one to act according to the objectives of the total organization rather than only on the basis of the goals and needs of ones own immediate group. There are major approaches of leadership theory:- Trait theory:- Trait theory does, however, help us identify some qualities that are helpful when leading others and, together, these emerge as a generalized leadership style. Examples include empathy, assertiveness, good decision-making, and likability. Trait theories argue that leaders share a number of common personality traits and characteristics, and that leadership emerges from these traits. Early trait theories promoted the idea that leadership is an innate, instinctive quality that you either have or dont have. Thankfully, weve moved on from this approach, and were learning more about what we can do as individuals to develop leadership qualities within ourselves and others Behavioral Approach Theory:- The behavioral approach theory is an extension of the traits theory and is superior in certain respects. The traits theory failed to explain what caused effective leadership. The behavioral approach is based on the study of behavior of a leader. This behavioral theory suggests that a leader do not behave in the same manner under all situations. Similarly, his actions are not identical under all situations which he faces. He adjusts his behavior as per the need of the situation. There is an element of flexibility in his approach and behavior. He studies the situation and adjusts his leadership style accordingly. He adopts different leadership styles to meet the need of different situations. Contingency theory of leadership:- Fred Fiedler developed the Contingency Theory of Leadership that determines types of leaders by their characteristics and the situations they find themselves in. The relationship-oriented leader will want to get along with their employees and thus will perform in a way which gains their adoration. This does not take away from the fact that they desire a high level of performance from their employees, but their top priority is to maintain good relationships. The top priority of a task-oriented leader is for their subordinates to complete all tasks and meet all goals. While both styles of leadership can be useful in different contexts, it is important to realize under Fiedlers Contingency Theory it is next to impossible for a relationship Situational leadership theories:- Situational theories of leadership were developed to find good ways of adapting leadership actions to meet the needs of different situations and circumstances. Leadership style here refers to the broad approach adopted by a leader. A leaders style of leadership is often based on a leaders own beliefs, personality, experiences, working environment and the situation at the time. Some leaders work within one leadership style. Others are more flexible and can adapt their style of leadership to meet the needs of different situations. Transactional vs. Transformational leadership theories:- Transactional leadership theory is based on transactions or exchanges between the leader and the follower. It assumes that the working relationship is one where the leader issues the work, praises or criticises, rewards or punishes. The follower has little responsibility, other than doing as they are required, correctly. All works well if both leader and follower carry out their part in the transactions as expected. This approach is more often seen in low skilled jobs, where procedures are clearly defined or where there is little change. Transformational leadership theory is all about change. Transformational leaders inspire others to follow a vision. One reason transformation model is a true development is its goal emphasis. The relationship between the leader and other members of the team isnt of primary importance. Such roles and duties exist because there is an outside something that all wish to reach, and so they take their places and undertake their own necessary tasks. For the first time, those studying leadership began to see it as necessarily being in relation to something greater. Transformational leadership depends on a greater context or meaning, which is something all people desire. Building trust and getting cooperation are far more difficult than giving orders and monitoring process. In transformational leadership, the leader must continue to be an inspiring presence. The leader leads by example and is responsible for motivating others. Richard Branson has got the style of a transformational and charismatic leader, which most of us only dream of working for or with. Sir Richards own opinion on this review of him as a leader, delivered through a two hour long interview of him on his island, sharing a nice bottle of red wine. But that will most probably stay à   dream, as will the wish of working for or with a leader as Sir Richard Branson. Leaders deals with their employees in different ways. Some are strict to the employees and like to be in absolute control on the other side some are more relaxed and allow workers some space to run their own working lives. Whatever approach is predominately used it will be vital to the success of the business. An organization is more or less similar to the Manager or the person running it. Management styles are also known as leadership styles, indeed they are similar phrases most of the time. Different Types of leadership Styles Autocratic Feature Autocratic Managers normally just gives orders to their staff takes decision without any discussion or consultation In these situation decisions are taken very quickly because staff are not consulate. Subordinates other staff are expected to obey the instructions. Impact As the staff does not have any involvement the works are usually completed on time decision are taken faster. Sometimes this kind of management style decrease the motivation also increase the staff turnover because they are not involved in taking any decision neither feel valued. Democratic Feature Unlike in Autocratic leadership style Democratic style employees are involved in taking decision therefore they find themselves valued they are motivated. They have been given responsibilities to finish the work given to them using their own method. However task should be completed on time. This method also improved the quality of staff because they are motivated belonging. Also the management gains team commitment especially when changes need to be made. Impact Although this style of leadership is very famous among businesses this method slows down the process of decision making because the staff is involved. The managers gain the team commitment mostly when changes need to be made. Laissez Faire Feature In Laissez Faire leadership style Managers sets a task gives staff absolute freedom to complete the task taking own decisions. In this leadership style there is very little or almost no direction from the manager. The manager however does not sit idle! They are there to coach or answer questions, supply information if required. Impact Staff fell motivated is developed to take responsibility. But on the other hand with very little guidance from the manager staff may feel lost a may not be able to reach the target within set the time frame. Motivation theory:- Motivation is the force that makes us behave in a particular way. In a business setting motivation is about ensuring that employees put in the effort required to achieve the objectives set for them. Motivation theories:- Over the years a number of leadership theories have been put forward in an attempt to explain the nature of employee motivation and suggest ways in which it may be improved. Frederick Taylors motivation theory:- Taylor was an American engineer who studied production methods in the steel industry. He concluded that workers main motivation was pay and that they needed close supervision. He believed that complex jobs would be most efficiently performed if broken down into separate operations where little could go wrong. The whole job could then be completed in a series of stages by employees working together in production line. Elton Mayo: in the 1920s Mayo conducted a series of experiments at the Hawthorn works of the American Electric Company in Chicago. He was investigating why, despite improved facilities and benefits, there was much dissatisfaction and poor productivity. He concluded that the employees were responding to the attention given to them, rather than to the physical working conditions. Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs:- Maslow believed that motivation comes from a desire to satisfy a hierarchy of human needs which show in diagram. We must first of all satisfy our basic needs for survival such as food and shelter. Thereafter we become interested in higher level needs such as job satisfaction and self -fulfillment. People in developing countries, for example will work hard for low wages because there is little alternative. Maslow accepted that a verity of needs will exist at the same time, but suggested that once lower needs are satisfied then higher become the strongest motivators. Frederick Herzbergs two factor theory:- Frederick Herzbergs two factor theory, produced in the 1950, concerns job design and satisfaction. From numerous interviews with accountants and engineers he concluded that two sets of factors are important in motivation. Hygiene factors motivators Reasonable pay Satisfactory conditions of work Benefits packages such as sick pay, pensions schemes, etc. Without these , people are dissatisfied, but they alone do not lead to job satisfaction or provide motivation Responsibility Challenge Self -improvement These provide job satisfaction and motivate people Douglas McGregors theory X and Y:- In his book, the human side of enterprise, McGregor put forward two extreme views about the way in which organizations manage their employees. He called these theories X and theory Y. Douglas McGregor believed that there were two main ways of managing employees. The theory x The theory y The theory x way, where employees are managed as if they are lazy and need to be punished and threatened if they do not work hard enough. The theory Y way, where employees are managed as if work is a good activity for them and they will feel rewarded from being with other human beings and doing a good job. The type of leadership style that is used with employees can make a difference to the level of motivation that they feel. Some employees may work harder if they are heavily supervised and threatened with punishment if they do not work well, but for others this can lead to de-motivation and they will either produce less work or eventually. McClelland: David McClelland suggested that there are three main types of motivational need:- The need for achievement The need for authority and power The need for affiliation Each employee and leader has differencing levels of these needs, and this influence their style and behavior as leader or employees. Look at the following example. A person who is achievement -motivated wants challenging goals and to be able to reach them. They need to receive feedback on how they are doing and need to feel they are being a success. A person who is authority and power -motivated needs to have a big influence on others and make an impact. They want and need to lead as his helps them feel better about themselves. A person who is affiliation -motivated wants friendly relationships and likes being with other people. They are team players and are often popular at work. As most people possess a mixture of all three sets of characteristics, the style a leader uses in influenced by their dominating need. Vroom:- Victor vroom developed his expectancy theory of motivation, which states that employees work harder if they believe that the outcome of their efforts will be better. He produced an equation that is used to calculate motivation:- M = EÃÆ'-IÃÆ'-V M= motivation E = expectancy I= instrumentality V = valence By multiplying these factors together Vroom says it is possible to work out how motivated someone is likely to be. If each variables is high, then motivations is likely to be high , but if one is low , overall motivation will be lowered. Culture-Culture of an association is the typical way of doing things in the organization. It particularly relates to behavior patterns and relationships. The culture of an organization develops over time. It is created by the people that work for the organization its manager and workforce. Any companys values and beliefs depend on cultures which are shared across the business. Company organizations also effect on its strategy and focus on the consumer. A key factors of the new approach has to change the corporate culture and build an atmosphere within the company those values : consumer facility which focus given that an skill that is agreeable and sociable as well as efficient team work, for the reason that this lead to superior support and the contribution of greatest training attractive ownership used for decision as a result to facilitate manager explain problems themselves rather than pass them on to others respecting every one thus everyone feel they be able to contribute havin g the cut-throat will to succeed thus each person is aim to develop and be successful. Cultural diversity:- The phrase Cultural Diversity means a group of various societies or peoples with different origins, religions and traditions living, working or interacting together. At the best, it involves treating fairly and reasonably each ethnic group without advancing the specific beliefs or values of any particular group. In other words cultural diversity at business is an idea of hiring people of different groups, different religions and encouraging the entry of working staff from various countries. Dimensions of diversity:- Primary dimensions Secondary dimensions Tertiary dimensions Race Ethnicity Gender Age disability religion culture sexual orientation thinking style geographic origin family status economic status political orientation work experience education language nationality beliefs assumptions perceptions attitudes feelings values group norms This table indicates that diversity has many dimensions. These may intertwine to produce unique syntheses of human profiles, made up of both differences and similarities. The dimensions interact with and influence one another and emerge or are displayed differently contexts, environments and circumstances, making analysis and management complex. Race, for example, may be more dominant than age in a certain social situation, but may be less dominant than education in a work context. Thus the position and dominance of each dimension are not static, but dynamic, making the concept of diversity more complex. The secondary dimensions are more malleable and many of them will change over time. Diversity is not simple, not easy to grasp and not easy to mange. By using socio-demographic traits as independent variables to operationalise diversity, most diversity studies has understood diversity as a given, fixed individual or group essence (Litvin 1997). Managing cultural diversity:- Overcoming prejudice and changing entrenched negative attitudes about equality and diversity issues is difficult. Every organization needs to understand the broad nature of the business arguments and ensure actions and initiatives support business goals. They need to move from minimal compliance with legal duties and focus on engaging employees understanding in ways that influence personal behaviors and operational activities regarding the diversity of products and services to meet diverse customer and client needs and preferences. People make the difference at work but everyone is different covers the evolution of the concept, tips for progressive action, case studies and diversity issues in the population. For an organization to gain the full benefits of diversity, a coherent diversity strategy is needed to ensure that all policies and working practices across the business reflect relevant diversity implications. It needs to be supported with a well communicated value system reflec ting the importance of diversity. All employees should be trained to understand and engage with this in the way they do their jobs and work with their colleagues. Diversity strategies need to embrace greater flexibility in both people propositions and customer and client service delivery and take account of the inclusive nature of the work- life balance agenda. Managing diversity also links to ensuring that employee wellbeing is not just a nice to do but an essential element of employee engagement and motivation. Smart employers take account of these issues as key components of their employer brand to support the attraction support and retention of talent. Adler (1997) has identified the following strategies for managing cultural differences. Ignore cultural differences Minimize cultural differences Manage cultural differences Recommendations:- The world keeps changing and providing new kinds of challenges to multinational corporations. This makes it necessary for them to adopt new strategies and new kinds of activities in order to survive and grow in a changing business environment. Virgin will continue to prosper in its global business by integrating the leadership skills and technical abilities of its executives to enable them to develop innovative ideas on how to cope with the diverse conditions in the global market. Another recommendation is for the corporation to eliminate the typical Western bias towards poor countries. The principle is to operate in ways that take into account the expectation of people who are affected by the business. The corporation should also make more efforts to develop native capability. This refers to the recruitment and training of the locals to become global leaders which ultimately will redound to the best interest of the corporation. Conclusion:- With over 25 years in the travel sector and a reputation for delivering unforgettable experiences to millions of Virgin fans, Virgin is a perfect fit for the hotel business. Virgin is a leader in design and hospitality and has transformed businesses ranging from airlines to fitness clubs to super luxury retreats and even space tourism. Customers expect innovation and excellence and our new 4 star hotels will deliver exactly that. Virgin Hotels offers a unique opportunity for property owners and developers to partner with a leading global brand in a highly differentiated hotel proposition that taps into evolving trends in consumer tastes. Virgin hotels aim to re-define the customer journey from pre-arrival to check-out is built on extensive customer research. Hotel valuable target audience includes high income, well-educated, metropolitan business and leisure travellers. We can leverage millions of Virgin flyers to significantly enhance marketing, sales and distribution, and millions of loyalty program members (Virgin America Elevate and Virgin Atlantic Flying Club). In addition, having built large scale, highly profitable businesses, we bring proven operational expertise. References: Ginsburg, F. (2002). Screen memories: Resignifying the traditional in Indigenous media. In F. Ginsburg, L. Abu-Lughod, and B.Larkin (Eds.),  Media Worlds: Anthropology on a New Terrain  (pp.39-57). Berkeley: University of California Press. Mullins L.J., 2007, Management and organizational behaviour, Pearson Education Ltd, GB, PP 166 Niezen Ronald A world beyond difference Blackwell Publishing 2004 Peter F.Drucker, the practice of management (New York: Harper Row, 1954).see also Allen Richard L.Draft, Management, 3rd ed. (Fort Worth, TX: Dryden Press, 1993), p.493. Smith, M. Smith, M. (2002). Globalization the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved August 27, 2006 James D.Thompson, Mcdonals in action, 1967. Michael E. Potter, competitive Strategy: techniques for analyzing industries and competitors 1980. Robert OQuinn and Kim Cameron, Mcdonald Life Cycles and Shifting Criteria of Effectiveness 1983. Rahul Jacob, Corporate Reputations, 1995, 54-67 William Warned, lessons of value -Driven Leadership, 1995.

the crime :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chad   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Bahamas,† it was a trip of a lifetime. I went there with my girlfriend and a couple of other friends. We were all nervous because it was the first time any of us have flown. We finally got a chance to start boarding, after we arrived at the airport five hours early. Before boarding, we had to show the airport attendants our birth certificate. When I went to show them my birth certificate, they wouldn’t let me board because mine was a copy and not the original. Luckily, after waiting for twenty minutes, they made a few calls and let me go.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As we flew over the ocean the water was crystal clear and the sky was beautiful. I couldn’t wait to get there, but after two and a half hours, we finally arrived in Nassau, Bahamas. We got off the plane and the weather was beautiful, it was 90 degrees and sunny. We walked in, got our luggage and had to go through customs. We went outside caught our bus and off we went to our resort. When arrived there everyone was very nice and respectful.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Our first day their we planned to take a boat over to the Atlantis resort on Paradise, Island. The Atlantis is a resort known to have movie stars and athletes stay. I was only twenty years old when we went there, so I have never been to a casino. We all got to gamble, and I won $300 playing blackjack, it was a blast. The resort also had an underground aquarium with sharks and lots of other odd looking fish.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The next few days we sat around the resort and went parasailing, and lots of other activities. Parasailing was an adrenaline rush and probably one of the funnier things I had done in my life. We also went downtown Nassau and that is where they have a big flea market. The flea market had a lot of neat and different things down there. We spent the whole day downtown and later that night went out to a few dance clubs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last two days we were there a hurricane was roaring in, while we were trying to get out.

The Desire to Conquer in Jesusville :: Character analysis, Jessy Belle the Second

The interlude in which Vee visits the museum of exotic dancers is quite interesting; I think one of the purposes of the scene was too reinforce the idea of rape that runs throughout the novel. Specifically with this idea of rape, I refer to the desire/need to conquer and to be conquered. This idea can be illustrated by several of the characters. The first character I will begin with is Jessie Belle. At the beginning of their adventure into the mountains, Jessie introduces her truck to Trace as â€Å"Jessie Belle the Second. My shadow Self† (pg 84). Trace then adds the comment, â€Å"Kind of like an alter ego† (pg 84). This becomes an interesting statement when we later receive a description of Jessie Belle with her truck. Cioffari writes that Trace was â€Å"impressed, too, by the skill she used to maneuver the old jeep, forcing it to do her will† (pg 85). If we consider Jessie Belle the Second as an extension of Jessie, then we can see a connection as to how Jessie is in need of conquering something within her. This need to conquer is manifested in her search for Joshua and the Salvia Divinorum. In finding the plant, Jessie is able to see Joshua for a final time through her hallucinations, and at the end of the novel seems to have â€Å"conquered† what she needed in order to move on. A second i nstance that reinforces this idea is the interlude which describes Jessie’s hallucination. Under the â€Å"influence† of the Salvia, Jessie dances and touches herself. It is through this act that we see Jessie’s consciousness, as it is under the influence of the plant, â€Å"conquering† her unconscious self –another illustration of Jessie’s need to conquer something within her. A second character that we see this idea manifested through is Father Martin. He, like Jessie, is in need of conquering something within. In his case it is his own doubts and fears. Attempting to calm his nerves, Father Martin paces to tire himself. He describes the night as having an â€Å"overpowering silence† and that the night â€Å"mocked his efforts† (pg 75). Father Martin hears the night taunting him, â€Å"Walk from here to kingdom come. For the next six hours I own you. I’ll do with you what I will.† A few pages later we see an encounter (arguably sexual) in which Martin conquers the silence through his act of ringing the bells.

Euthanasia And Self Determination :: Free Euthanasia Essay

When speaking in terms of legalized euthanasia, and self-determination, Callahan feels that people should make decisions for themselves according to their own beliefs as to what comprises the good life. (pg. 226) He also states that we will, one way or another, die of some disease and that death will have dominian over all of us. (pg. 227) The meaning of this is no matter what we are all destined to die. In the case of death he first looks at suicide. This is when a person takes his or her own life, without the assistance of another. Euthansia, is a decision made between 2 people, the one being killed and the one doing the killing. He takes the stand that the very idea someone would waive their right to life, and then give another the power to take that life, requires a justification yet to be provided to him or by anyone. ( pg. 226) Should anyone want to end their life for any reason it can definitely be achieved. Callahan feels that doctors of medicine should not be given the right to end lives of people who no longer feel life is worth living and that euthanasia should only be utilized only to releive the pain of an incurable disease. (pg. 228) It is not medicines, place to lift from us the burden of suffering, which turns on the meaning we assign the decay (or natural aging process) of the body and its eventual death. It is not it’s place to determine when lives are not worth living or when the burden of life has become to great to be borne. (pg. 229) Hence he is saying that physicians should not be allowed to be the sole person making judgements about who should be allowed to live or die, in any situation. The person who knows that he or she is infected and chooses to forego treatment has decided to commit suicide. The flipside of this is the person who infected the individual initally, knowing that they were infectious decided to end the other persons life for them. This by our standards ehis would be murder. However, should both parties know about the infectious process then a form of euthanasia between two consenting individuals has be obtained, whether during the act of sex, or sharing needles in drug addiction. Bayer and Callahan both agree that a person or group of people having their own beliefs and cultural habits need to be addressed with that in mind.